Personality, Motivation, and Cognitive Performance: a theory of individual differences in cognitive performance

1. Personality traits and individual differences (Who)

a) Dimensions of individual differences

(1) American taxonomies-The Big 5
- (a) Surgency or extraversion
- (b) Agreeableness
- (c) Conscientiousness
- (d) Emotional Stability
- (e) Culture
(2) European biological taxonomies- "Even Bigger 3"
- (a) Introversion/extraversion
  - i) Sociability
  - ii) Impulsivity
- (b) Neuroticism
- (c) Tough mindedness
  - i) Aggression?
  - ii) Masculinity?

b) Background variables

(1) Biological bases
- (a) Genetic predispositions
  - i) polygenetic inheritance
  - ii) moderate heritabilities
- (b) Biological substrates
  - i) Conceptual Nervous System
    - (1) Behavioral Activation System
    - (2) Behavioral Inhibition System
    - (3) Arousal System
      - (a) one or many?
      - (b) energetic arousal
      - (c) tense arousal
  - ii) Sensitivities to reinforcement
    - (1) sensitivity to rewards
    - (2) sensitivity to punishments
(2) Past history
- (a) Knowledge
  - i) Declarative
    - (1) episodic memories (of)
    - (2) semantic memories (that)
  - ii) Procedural (how)
    - (1) Skills
    - (2) Classical conditioning
- (b) Past history of reinforcement leading to current expectations
  - i) expectations of rewards
  - ii) expectations of punishment

2. Situational variables (Where)

a) primary effects on direction

(1) Expectancies of success and failure
- (a) task difficulty
- (b) comparison level
(2) Extrinsic demands
- (a) rewards
- (b) threats
(3) public versus private feedback

b) primary effects on intensity

(1) time of day
(2) stimulant drugs
(3) exercise
(4) depressant drugs

c) Mixed effects

(1) noise
(2) time pressure
(3) presence of others

3. Motivational Variables (Why)

a) Motives (see also personality traits)

(1) need for achievement
(2) need to avoid failure
(3) need affiliation
(4) need for stimulation?

b) Motivational states

(1) Directional
- (a) approach
- (b) avoidance
(2) Intensity
- (a) energetic arousal
- (b) tense arousal (?)

4. Task Variables (What)

a) Multiple types of demands

(1) Detection
(2) Encoding
(3) Storage
(4) Retrieval
(5) Processing

b) Attentional demands

(1) Detecting
(2) Filtering
(3) Sustaining

c) Memory demands

(1) Immediate versus delayed processing
(2) Capacity of immediate memory

5. Outcome Measures

a) Immediate measures

(1) Choice and direction
- (a) Task choice
- (b) Time spent
  - i) latency of choice
  - ii) persistence of choice
(2) Intensity
(3) Efficiency
- (a) speed of performance
- (b) accuracy of performance
(4) quality of performance
(5) rate of acquisition
(6) asymptotic level

b) Cumulative achievement

(1) Ability
- (a) knowledge base
- (b) application of knowledge
(2) Efficiency
- (a) curvilinear function of motivation?
  - i) Humphreys-Revelle model
    - (1) arousal facilitates attention
    - (2) arousal facilitates long term memory storage
    - (3) arousal hinders immediate (working) memory
  - ii) Anderson-Revelle model
    - (1) beneficial effects of energetic arousal
    - (2) detrimental effects of tense arousal
- (b) optimal and non-optimal performance
  - i) Yerkes-Dodson Law and the function of task difficulty
(3) Time spent

6. Control systems and feedback

a) Short term feedback loops

(1) Motivational carryover
- (a) motivation for incomplete acts perists
- (b) completion quenches motivational state
(2) Task choice as function of time and alternatives

b) Long term feedback loop

(1) expectancy of success = f(history of success, sensitivity to success)
(2) expectancy of failure = f(history of failure, sensitivity to failure)
(3) self efficacy = balance of expectancy of success and failure

c) Strategic tradeoffs

(1) Speed versus accuracy
(2) Time spent to achieve goal 1 is time not spent to achieve goal 2
- (a) studying versus socializing
- (b) career versus family